Nanoparticles in Modern Science: From Design to Application

Abstract

Recent advances in nanotechnology have positioned nanoparticles as versatile and transformative materials across biomedical, environmental, and industrial sectors. Their unique physicochemical properties—arising from high surface area, tunable size, and surface functionality—enable enhanced performance compared with bulk materials. Between 2020 and 2025, significant progress has been made in eco-friendly green synthesis, microfluidic-assisted fabrication, hybrid nanostructures, and advanced surface engineering strategies. These developments have expanded the scope of nanoparticles in drug delivery, bioimaging, theranostics, clean energy production, water purification, and regenerative medicine. Innovations in characterization techniques such as real-time in situ analysis and improved surface-specific spectroscopies have strengthened the understanding of nanoparticle stability, protein corona behaviour, and nano–bio interactions. Despite substantial growth, challenges persist in large-scaleproduction, long-term biocompatibility, regulatory acceptance, and reproducibility of synthesis and characterization. Addressing toxicity, immune interactions, and environmental impact remains crucial for clinical and industrial translation. Future perspectives emphasize personalized nanomedicine, AI-assisted nanoparticle design, sustainable manufacturing, and integrated nano-bio systems. This review compiles recent developments and emerging trends to provide an updated understanding of nanoparticle research and its broad interdisciplinary applications.